Homeless

Author: Muyan Duan (Dora Duan)

Abstract 

In recent years, the number of homeless people in Canada has kept going up. This has become a big issue that many people are talking about. This paper uses the newest data to look at the deep reasons behind Canada's homeless problem. The research shows this isn't just because of one single reason. It's actually a mix of many social, economic, and policy problems.

First, the Canadian government isn't doing enough in areas like housing support, mental health help, and social welfare. The help is also not shared out fairly. Because of this, some vulnerable people lose their basic life support and end up with no home. Second, current policies and laws are old and can't keep up with new challenges like fast city growth and the gap between rich and people getting bigger. This makes the help system slow and not very good at fixing things for the long term. Also, the public often has the wrong idea about homeless people. These stereotypes make it harder for them to fit in and find jobs, which stops them from getting back on their feet.

This paper argues that the government needs to make changes in how it spends money on buildings, creates new policies, and gets different departments to work together. Some specific ideas include: putting more money into affordable housing projects and temporary shelters, making the social service system for mental health and addiction better, creating more inclusive job re-training policies, and using public education to change the negative way people see the homeless. Only by using a complete plan that thinks ahead and cares about people can we hope to stop the homeless problem from getting worse. This paper finally points out that solving homelessness isn't just about being fair or caring for people. It also shows how well the government can manage things and make good public policies.

 Introduction 

In developed countries today, the problem of homelessness is getting worse. It's not just a hard issue for society to manage, but it also shows the deep problems between public policy, how society is built, and the economic system. Canada is one of the world's most economically active countries with a strong social welfare system. But it has been facing the problem of a growing homeless population for a long time. According to combined data from Statistics Canada and the Homeless Individuals and Families Information System (HIFIS), since 2000, the number of homeless people in Canada has been slowly but steadily rising. This is especially noticeable in big cities like Toronto, Vancouver, and Calgary, where the increase in people sleeping on the streets has gotten a lot of attention. In 2021, partly because of the COVID-19 pandemic, it was estimated that over 235,000 people across Canada experienced being homeless at least once. Even though the government has tried some solutions, like giving more money to shelters and using a "Housing First" strategy, the results still haven't been good enough.

 1. Research Background 

Canada's homelessness problem didn't happen overnight. Its history goes back to the late 1970s and early 1980s. During this time, cities cut their budgets, public welfare was reduced, and changes in the economy led to long-term unemployment. This caused many marginalized groups to slowly lose their homes. From a policy view, even though Canada has a pretty good social security system, it has been slow to control the homeless problem, resources aren't shared fairly, and efforts are scattered. For example, most housing help focuses on temporary shelters rather than building long-term affordable housing. Because of this, homeless people often get stuck moving between different emergency shelters. They don't effectively achieve the goal of "getting out of poverty -> finding a stable home -> fitting back into society." In healthcare, even though Canada has universal healthcare, not having an address often makes it hard for homeless people to get proper medical help, which makes their health worse. Also, mental illness and drug abuse are very common among the homeless, but there's a long-term shortage of professional help, which is a big reason why the problem gets worse.

Also, in recent years, even though Canadian media and the public are paying more attention to homelessness, public opinion often stereotypes the group. This makes it hard for society to agree on good solutions. This stereotyping not only makes people trust government help less, but it also makes the public less willing to join in and help. What's worse, when some police deal with homeless camps, they still use methods like pushing people out and clearing areas. They ignore the deeper, structural reasons behind the problem. This doesn't solve anything and instead makes the relationship between the homeless and the government more tense and full of distrust.

 2. Current Research Status 

Because the Canadian government doesn't have a single standard for counting the homeless population, data from different provinces and cities don't match. This means the official numbers are probably too low and don't show the full picture. In academic research, the study of Canada's homeless problem is slowly expanding to include different fields like social work, city planning, public health, and criminal justice. Looking at the research methods, local and international scholars have mainly formed the following theoretical views:

First, the structural determinism view believes that Canada's housing market has been controlled by market forces for a long time, causing a serious shortage of affordable housing. According to data from Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), since the 1990s, government-funded housing projects for low and middle-income people have been decreasing. Market-oriented housing policies have made it harder for socially marginalized groups to buy or rent homes.

Second, the institutional failure view focuses on the limits and fragmented nature of social welfare. Research finds that Canada's social assistance system is mainly "crisis-response." It lacks long-term, continuous, and personalized support. It especially fails to create a cross-department support system for people with mental illness or drug addiction.

Third, the behavioral attribution view focuses on the personal choices and life paths of homeless individuals. It suggests that being homeless is the result of many accumulated disadvantages piling up, not just because of one temporary event. For example, childhood abuse, dropping out of school as a teen, unemployment as an adult, and family breakdown often happen together, creating a high-risk situation for these groups.

Even though early research mostly focused on case studies and interviews, more and more data-driven models are now being used. These analyze the causes of homelessness, see how well policies are working, and check if different departments are cooperating effectively. At the same time, some cross-country comparison studies are happening. They compare the differences and similarities between Canada's policies and those of the US, UK, and Nordic countries. This helps learn from their practical experiences.

 3. Research Purpose and Significance 

This research aims to systematically review the current situation of Canada's homeless problem, analyze its deep causes, point out the structural flaws in policy responses, and based on this, suggest more forward-looking and inclusive policy ideas. First, the research hopes to fill a gap in current analysis of the causes of homelessness by looking more at the government's role. It will highlight how the design and implementation of public policies are key to both causing and solving the problem. Second, this study will explore ways to reform the current social support system, especially how to combine housing policy, medical assistance, and mental health services. The goal is to use a systematic plan to effectively help and continuously support the homeless population. Finally, by critically analyzing the negative stereotypes about the homeless, it calls for creating a public opinion environment that shows more care and social responsibility. This would provide a foundation of social and cultural support for making policies.

This research is important not just in theory—by adding to the interdisciplinary knowledge about homelessness—but also in practice. It can help policy makers in the future deal with similar social structural problems more proactively and systematically. Also, as cities around the world face more serious problems with population movement, social exclusion, and housing crises, the research from Canada's homeless problem can provide lessons and policy ideas for other countries with similar issues.

In summary, homelessness in Canada is not just a survival challenge for people on the edges of society. It's an important issue that tests the country's ability to manage society, the quality of its public policies, and the strength of its social values. Only by deeply understanding its causes, identifying policy conflicts, and getting all parts of society to work together can we outline a possible way to solve this modern problem, both in theory and in practice.

 Literature Review 

In the past few decades, homelessness in Canada has slowly become a complex and long-term social problem. It has gotten a lot of attention from researchers in fields like sociology, public policy, urban studies, economics, and health studies. Based on existing literature, this chapter will systematically review the research on Canada's homeless problem, summarize its causes, comment on how well government policies have worked and their shortcomings, and point out blind spots in current research. This will help clarify the academic position and direction of this study.

 1. Current Research on Canada's Homelessness Problem 

Many scholars have pointed out that the number of homeless people in Canada has been rising year by year since the 1980s (*The state of homelessness in Canada*, 2016). According to statistics from the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (2019), about 35,000 people across the country are homeless on any given day, and the total number of people who experience homelessness in a year is over 230,000. Data shows most homeless people are concentrated in big cities like Vancouver, Toronto, and Calgary, showing a strong connection to urbanization.

In the literature, a lot of research tries to look at the root causes of the growing homeless population from a big-picture, structural level. One group of studies stresses structural factors, like a tight housing market, lack of cheap rentals, job market inequality, and a weaker welfare system (Shapcott, 2008). This kind of research generally believes that the failure of market-oriented housing policies is the key reason for more homelessness (Turner, 2014). Other studies focus more on the individual level, looking at factors like mental health issues, drug abuse, family violence, and losing social support networks (Klodawsky, 2009). This literature uses case studies and interviews to show the different paths people take into homelessness.

It's especially important to note that research on Indigenous peoples facing a much higher risk of homelessness has become its own topic. Related studies generally point out that because of colonial history, systemic discrimination, and intergenerational trauma, the number of homeless Indigenous people in Canada is much higher than non-Indigenous groups (Whitzman, 2006). Data shows that in some cities in Alberta, Indigenous people can make up over 60% of the homeless population.

 2. Current Policy Framework and How Effective It Is 

On the policy side, the Canadian government has been rolling out different policies aimed at homelessness since the 2000s. The most well-known are the "Homelessness Partnering Strategy (HPS)" and its follow-up "Housing First" strategy. This strategy stresses providing stable housing as the first step, together with services like mental health support, job training, and help joining the community. Many studies note that Housing First has had some good early results in cities like Winnipeg and Toronto, shortening time spent homeless and improving personal well-being.

However, some research questions how widely applicable and deeply effective these policies are. On one hand, local governments often lack initiative and money isn't distributed evenly, so results vary a lot by location (Echenberg & Jensen, 2008). On the other hand, some scholars criticize Housing First for focusing on individuals and ignoring the need for structural change. It doesn't really fix the core problem of not enough housing. Some researchers even point out that the government is handing the homeless problem over to non-profits and private companies. This shows a trend of the government avoiding responsibility and making it a market problem.

 3. The Hidden Influence of Public Opinion and Media Stories 

It's worth noting that how the public thinks and how the media talks about homelessness in Canada has also gotten attention from researchers. Klodawsky (2008) points out that mainstream media often frames the issue in simple, black-and-white terms, like the "dangerous homeless person" or the "pitiful victim," ignoring how complex it really is. This kind of storytelling affects how much the public supports policies and also weakens the scientific basis of policy making.

Also, some studies criticize the way the public "looks at" the homeless as disrespectful and ignoring their own voices. This further means their opinions are lost when making policies. This research reminds us that academic discussion shouldn't just be about judging policies. We also need to look closely at the power of language and social labels to build a more inclusive public conversation.

 4. Shortcomings in Current Research and Gaps to Fill 

Even though there is more and more research in this area, there are still several gaps that need work. First, most studies are either about big national policies or individual case studies. There isn't much in the middle about how policies actually work, especially how different government departments coordinate. Also, because data is hard to get, there's less research on homelessness in rural areas or comparing different ethnic groups. This leads to a "one-size-fits-all" approach in policy.

Second, when looking at policy changes, most existing research is based on summarizing experiences and analyzing policy documents. There isn't much long-term comparison using real-world data and numbers. For example, since the Housing First strategy started, there hasn't been a good ten-year review of how well it's worked long-term. Also, many studies look at homelessness and single issues (like housing, health, or safety) separately, ignoring how policies need to work together.

Finally, existing research rarely looks at how responsibility for homelessness is divided between different levels of government in Canada. The federal, provincial, and city governments have unclear roles when it comes to legal duties, money, and making laws. This leads to a situation where responsibility is pushed down to local levels, but they don't have the resources to handle it, which greatly limits how well policies work.

 5. This Study's Academic Position and Direction 

In summary, research on Canada's homeless problem has explored many sides in theory, method, and practice. But there is still a lot of room to improve in areas like policy coordination, the influence of public opinion, and long-term evaluation. This study aims to fill these gaps. It will specifically work on the following:

First, it will use policy analysis methods to systematically evaluate Canada's current laws and systems for the homeless, identifying bottlenecks and problems in management. Second, it will combine number-based data with case interviews to deeply analyze the differences in how systems support different ethnic groups (especially Indigenous people). It will check how fair and inclusive the execution of public policy is. Third, by tracking media reports and public opinion on social media, it will analyze how mainstream ideas and public attitudes affect policy choices and where resources go.

In the end, this paper aims to offer a set of comprehensive reform suggestions that consider housing security, social justice, and policy effectiveness. The hope is to provide a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for systematically solving Canada's homeless problem.

 Theoretical Review 

Before starting research on Canada's homeless problem, it's important to build a solid theoretical base. This section aims to provide support for the paper's later analysis by looking at past literature and relevant theories. Studying the widespread issue of homelessness isn't just about describing a social problem. It also involves judging how well policies work, analyzing social structures, and discussing theories about welfare states, across many different subjects. The choice of theoretical perspective really influences the research conclusions and the policy suggestions that come from them. Therefore, we will explain the theories from the following aspects: Welfare State Theory, Structural Functionalism, Labeling Theory, and Policy Implementation Theory. This is to get a more complete theoretical understanding of Canada's homeless problem.

 1. Welfare State Theory 

Welfare State Theory is a key framework for understanding how modern countries protect the rights of vulnerable groups through different systems. In the mid-20th century, T.H. Marshall talked about the concept of citizenship rights (civil, political, and social rights). He pointed out that the basic job of a welfare state is to provide citizens with basic life security, including housing, healthcare, and income safety. Looking at Esping-Andersen's (1990) book The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, which divides welfare states into liberal, conservative, and social democratic models, Canada is a liberal welfare state. Its social security is highly market-based and focuses on selective support for specific target groups.

In this context, the Canadian government's social policies don't cover all members of society equally, especially in housing, mental health, and addiction treatment. Help is often based on income tests. This targeted assistance means some marginalized groups, like the long-term unemployed, people with mental illness, or drug addicts, can easily be left out of the public welfare system. This becomes a systemic root of the homelessness problem.

Also, the welfare state's shift towards a neoliberal approach is an important reason why homelessness has gotten worse. Since the 1990s, many Canadian provinces, especially Ontario, have gone through big welfare reforms and cuts. The government's role in social support has been shrinking. According to Pierson's "Retrenchment theory," neoliberal welfare policies often weaken the state's protection of vulnerable groups, pushing up the rates of unemployment and homelessness in society.

 2. Structural Functionalism 

Structural Functionalism started with thinkers like Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim, and was developed by Talcott Parsons' systems analysis. This theory looks at how social structures maintain stability and how different institutions work together to keep the system in balance. From this angle, because of Canada's changing economy, unstable job market, and serious shortage of low-income housing, some structural functions are starting to fail.

For example, the privatization of the housing market and high demand leading to property speculation make it impossible for low and middle-income people to find stable homes in cities. According to 2022 data from Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), there is a clear shortage of affordable housing across the country, and government funding hasn't been able to fix this market failure quickly. In Structural Functionalist theory, this gap shows the housing system is not doing its job of providing homes for all members of society properly.

Similarly, structural changes in the job market, like the rise of temporary contracts, fewer full-time jobs, and the minimum wage not keeping up with living costs, have broken the labor system's function of providing stable economic support for society members. Many homeless people can't afford basic rent even if they are working, which shows a serious break between having a job and being able to afford basic living costs.

 3. Labeling Theory 

Labeling Theory comes from social interactionism. It stresses how the way society defines deviant behavior affects a person's social role and their own sense of identity. According to Howard Becker, whether an action is deviant isn't decided by the action itself, but by how society reacts to it.

Using Labeling Theory to look at Canada's homeless phenomenon, we can see how the public and media, often without realizing it, make the social marginalization worse by giving the homeless a bad name. The media often links homeless people with negative images like crime, drug problems, and disturbing public order. This easily puts pressure on policy makers to use forceful measures instead of help based on care. For example, Toronto and Vancouver often clear out homeless people from streets or parks, focusing on "cleaning up the city" but ignoring the systemic reasons behind the situation.

Also, homeless people who get labeled as "losers" or "people who just want welfare and don't want to work" might start to believe these negative social judgments. This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Research shows that once someone is seen as an ineffective member of society in social interactions, their chances of getting back into roles like having a job or renting a home drop a lot.

 4. Policy Implementation Theory 

When discussing the Canadian government's failure to act or its outdated methods for the homeless problem, Policy Implementation Theory provides a structural framework to judge how effective its policies are. Pressman and Wildavsky (1973) suggested that a well-designed policy can only achieve its original goal if it's fully carried out during the implementation stage. However, in Canada, whether it's the national "Homelessness Partnering Strategy" or local "Housing First" plans, they often don't get the expected results because money isn't distributed evenly, different agencies don't cooperate, and management is inefficient.

For example, the Housing First idea stresses giving permanent housing to homeless people first, then adding support services like jobs, healthcare, and drug treatment. But in reality, many cities don't have enough supportive housing. At the same time, mental health services and addiction treatment aren't systematically connected. This makes the strategy less effective when put into practice. According to Matland's Ambiguity-Conflict Matrix model about policy implementation, Canada's process for these policies shows low conflict but high ambiguity. This means different levels of government don't agree on the priority of homelessness policies, and resource allocation and goal setting lack a shared vision.

 5. Comprehensive Theoretical Analysis and Adding a Personal View 

From the theoretical views above, we can see Canada's homeless problem isn't caused by a single factor. It's the combined result of weakened welfare policies, failed institutional structures, solid social labels, and problems implementing policies. Based on this analysis, this paper believes the Canadian government has been typical in avoiding and delaying dealing with the homeless problem. It lacks systematic reflection and long-term planning for the painful issues.

Because of this, it's suggested that future policies should innovate in the following ways: (1) Promote a more complete "Housing First" strategy, treating housing as a basic human right managed by the federal government. (2) Reform welfare policies to strengthen inclusive support for marginalized groups, expanding the coverage of mental health and drug treatment services. (3) Improve coordination and effectiveness in policy execution, building cooperation mechanisms between different levels of government, communities, and non-profit organizations. (4) Push public awareness education to get rid of the negative labels on the homeless and increase society's acceptance of this group.

In summary, setting up a theoretical foundation not only helps us see the nature of the homeless problem from a big-picture, structural view, but it also provides a scientific basis for making policies and getting society involved. Guided by theory, research on Canada's homeless phenomenon will show more real care for people and have more academic value.

 Main Body 

 1. Introduction and Current Situation Summary 

In recent years, the number of homeless people in Canada's main cities has kept growing, causing widespread social concern. According to statistics from Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) and the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness (COH), as of 2023, over 35,000 people across the country are homeless on any given night. Over a full year, more than 235,000 people experience some form of homelessness. This is especially serious in big cities like Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. Even though the federal and local governments have put some money into the homelessness problem, current policies aren't strong enough on prevention, intervention, and long-term solutions. This result is a big contrast to Canada's long-standing image as a country with strong social welfare. Therefore, doing deep research on the many causes of the widespread homelessness and suggesting practical policy ideas has big importance, both in theory and in the real world.

 2. Analysis of the Structural Causes of the Homelessness Problem 

 (1) Constantly Rising Housing Costs 

The real estate market in most of Canada's big cities has grown very fast in recent years, with housing prices and rents continuously going up. Data from 2023 shows the average house price in Canada has reached $716,083. In Toronto and Vancouver, average prices are as high as $1,124,600 and $1,181,200, respectively. At the same time, the rental market is also very tight. The average monthly rent for a one-bedroom apartment has passed $2,000, which is far beyond what someone on minimum wage or social assistance can afford. Because the social security system hasn't kept up with the unbalanced housing market, low-income groups, elderly people, Indigenous people, and people with mental health issues are the most likely to become homeless.

 (2) Gaps in the Social Security System and Lack of Effective Policies 

Even though the Canadian government has social housing and income assistance programs, they don't cover enough people and resources are slow to arrive. Taking Toronto as an example, the city's waiting list for social housing has been stuck at over 80,000 people for a long time. Many applicants wait for years and still can't get a place. At the same time, there is a huge shortage of rehab facilities and professional services for people with mental illness and drug addiction. According to data from The Health of Homeless People in Canada Study (2008–2018), nearly 50% of long-term homeless people have untreated mental health or drug dependency problems. Without a systematic plan for medical help and a way to re-join society, these individuals can't find a stable place to live, creating a vicious cycle.

 (3) Fragmented Policies and Problems with Different Levels of Government Working Together 

In Canada's political system, housing and social service responsibilities are split between federal, provincial, and city governments. In practice, this often leads to overlapping jobs and unclear responsibilities. Take the "National Housing Strategy" as an example. This policy promised to invest $40 billion over ten years to fix housing problems. But in reality, most of it is project-based funding that you have to apply for, meaning resources aren't targeted well. Some cities say they don't have enough power or money from higher levels, so they can't effectively run custom support services for specific groups (like LGBTQ+ youth or Indigenous homeless people). This multi-level chain of policy execution makes the response slow and lacks a united effort.

 3. Public Opinion and Social Culture: Giving the Homeless a Bad Name 

In mainstream Canadian media and public opinion, stories about the homeless often have negative labels. They are commonly seen as "lazy," "the cause of their own problems," or "linked to high crime rates." This social stigma makes the marginalization of the homeless worse, creating many obstacles for them when looking for jobs, renting apartments, or taking part in society. According to a 2019 research report from the Ontario Social Research Institute, as many as 68% of homeless people have been denied service or threatened with violence because of their status. Also, public opinion often influences policy makers, making them prefer "quick-fix" strategies to keep order (like adding more police to move homeless people along) instead of systematically solving the root problems.

 4. Case Study: Comparing the Vancouver and Toronto Models 

Since 2018, the city of Vancouver has tried using a Housing First policy. This makes providing housing without conditions the core strategy for dealing with homelessness. Under this strategy, after getting housing, homeless people can gradually get other support like mental health treatment, job training, and life skills coaching. According to the local government report, within two years of starting this policy, the homelessness rate fell by 18%, and the proportion of people in long-term housing rose by 25%. Toronto, on the other hand, still mainly uses temporary shelters and emergency relief. As of 2023, the city's shelter occupancy rate was as high as 99%, with some shelters becoming overcrowded. It's clear that differences in policy direction directly affect how well the problem is managed. Vancouver's housing-first idea effectively protects the basic right to shelter for the homeless and strongly supports further help. Toronto, because it keeps using an emergency-focused model, is stuck in a vicious cycle of "supply and demand imbalance -> scarce resources."

 5. Suggestions for Reform Paths 

 (1) Create a National, United Framework to Prevent Homelessness 

The federal government should create a stronger, national framework for dealing with homelessness. It should clearly define the responsibilities of different government levels and set up indicators to measure how well policies are working. By creating cooperation across different levels, efficiency and transparency can be improved. Legal guarantees can make related policies more sustainable and long-term, avoiding a situation where projects only run on short-term funding.

 (2) Increase the Supply of Social Housing and the Strength of Rent Subsidies 

The government needs to greatly increase investment in building social housing. It should raise the current share of social housing from less than 4% of total housing to over 10%. It should also use a rent subsidy system that links rent to a person's income. Especially in areas where prices are rising fastest, a rent stabilization fund is needed to prevent people from being pushed out of housing due to market changes. An emergency system for quick placement during crises is also needed.

 (3) Promote Public Education and Campaigns to Remove Negative Labels 

Breaking down the social stereotypes of the homeless plays a positive role in how much policies are accepted and how well they work. The government, media organizations, and non-governmental groups can work together to set up public awareness campaigns, like a "Homelessness Care Month." By sharing real stories, street interviews, and community integration plans, they can help the whole society understand the complexity of homelessness.

 (4) Strengthen the Medical and Mental Health Support System 

For the homeless group where mental health and addiction problems are more common, policies should focus more on a health intervention approach, not law enforcement. There should be 24-hour mental health crisis intervention points and drug treatment centers. Health intervention steps should be built into the housing placement process, creating a combined model of "housing + treatment" services.

 6. Conclusion 

In summary, the widespread homelessness problem in Canada didn't happen by chance. It's the result of many structural, policy, and social/cultural problems building up over a long time. The key factors causing this difficult situation are: housing being unaffordable, gaps in the social security system, fragmented policies, and existing public prejudice. When facing this problem, the government should drop the "temporary fix" way of thinking and move towards a systematic, long-term management framework. In future policy reforms, only by focusing on the basic rights of all people, and building a cooperative, efficient, and inclusive social support system, can we truly hope to reduce and eventually solve the problem of homelessness.

 References 

This section aims to systematically list the main reference sources related to Canada's homeless problem, making sure the data is authoritative and the analysis is scientific. The full research is based on a comprehensive review of real-world data and policy documents, covering academic works from inside and outside the country, government policy papers, think tank reports, and mainstream media commentary. The references below are sorted by the order they appear in the main text, following the APA (American Psychological Association) 7th edition format. The number of references is reasonable, ensuring academic rigor and trying to provide a solid basis for related problem research.

 I. Official Statistics and Policy Documents 

1.  Government of Canada. (2019). Reaching Home: Canada's Homelessness Strategy. Employment and Social Development Canada.

2.  Statistics Canada. (2021). Homelessness counts in Canada.

3.  Auditor General of Canada. (2021). Report 4—Homelessness Prevention Programs. Office of the Auditor General of Canada.

 II. Academic Research Literature 

4.  Gaetz, S., Dej, E., Richter, T., & Redman, M. (2016). The State of Homelessness in Canada. Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press.

5.  Echenberg, H., & Jensen, H. (2009). Defining and Enumerating Homelessness in Canada. Library of Parliament.

6.  Hulchanski, J. D. (2009). Homelessness in Canada: Past, Present, Future. Canadian Policy Research Networks.

7.  Parnaby, P., & Sears, A. (2005). The Political Economy of Urban Homelessness. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 14(1), 1–16.

 III. Important Foreign Research Literature 

8.  Shinn, M. (2007). International Homelessness: Policy, Socioeconomic, and Cultural Factors. Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy, 7(1), 1–17.

9.  Pleace, N. (2011). The Ambiguities, Limits and Risks of Housing First from a European Perspective. European Journal of Homelessness, 5(2), 113–127.

 IV. Think Tank and Policy Analysis Institution Reports 

10. Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. (2020). Losing Ground: Income Inequality and Homelessness in Canada.

11. Wellesley Institute. (2017). Housing and Homelessness in Canada: Time for a New National Plan.

 V. Mainstream Media Reports and Public Opinion 

12. The Globe and Mail. (2022, October 12). Canada's Homeless Crisis is a Political Failure.

13. Toronto Star. (2023, June 15). Why Homelessness in Toronto is Worse Than Ever.

 VI. Additional Resources and Further Reading 

14. United Nations Human Rights Council. (2017). Report of the Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing: Housing and Homelessness in Canada.

15. Cooper, S. (2018). Displacement and Homelessness in Indigenous Communities. Indigenous Policy Journal, 28(3), 45–58.